Communication Theories

Communication is the process of exchanging ideas, thoughts, information, emotions, and messages between individuals or groups. It involves a sender, a message, a medium, a receiver, and feedback. Effective communication is essential in business, education, and all social interactions as it ensures clarity, understanding, and coordinated action.

Major Communication theories:

1. Shannon and Weaver’s Information Theory

Developed in 1948 by Claude Shannon and Warren Weaver, the Information Theory was originally designed to improve technical communication in telephones and computers. It introduced a scientific and engineering perspective to communication, focusing on transmission accuracy rather than human interaction. The model includes the sender, encoder, channel, decoder, and receiver, with noise as a critical factor that disrupts communication.

The process begins with the sender formulating a message, which is encoded and sent through a chosen channel. Noise may interfere with the message during transmission, and the receiver decodes it. However, the model initially lacked the concept of feedback, making it unidirectional.

Key Elements:

• Sender → Encoder → Channel (with Noise) → Decoder → Receiver

In business communication, the Shannon-Weaver model is especially useful for analyzing communication systems, such as emails, data sharing, and corporate messaging. It emphasizes the need for clarity, proper channel selection, and awareness of communication barriers.

However, the model is criticized for not addressing the emotional, cultural, and relational aspects of communication. Still, it laid the groundwork for later, more interactive models.

2. Interaction Theory of Communication

Origin: Developed in response to the limitations of the Information Theory, the Interaction Theory incorporates feedback, making it a two-way communication model.

Components:

• Sender → encodes and transmits the message

• Message: The actual communication

• Receiver → decodes and responds

• Feedback: Response from receiver to sender

• Context: Situation in which the communication takes place

Key Features:

• Communication is cyclical, not linear

• Includes feedback for correction and clarity

• Recognizes role-switching (sender becomes receiver and vice versa)

Application:

• Used in conversations, meetings, and team communication

• Improves understanding and responsiveness

Limitations:

• Still sequential, feedback happens after message reception

• Doesn’t account for simultaneous communication

• May not reflect real-time communication accurately

Example in business: A manager gives instructions, and the employee asks clarifying questions before starting a task.

3. Transaction Theory of Communication (Transactional Model)

Origin: An advancement over the interaction model, the Transactional Theory treats communication as simultaneous and dynamic.

Components:

• Communicators: Each person is both sender and receiver simultaneously

• Messages: Sent and received at the same time

• Noise: Both internal (e.g., emotions) and external (e.g., sound)

• Context: Includes physical, social, and psychological environment

• Feedback: Continuous and real-time

Key Features:

• Emphasizes mutual understanding

• Communication is continuous and irreversible

• Recognizes non-verbal communication and emotional cues

• Shows that meaning is co-created, not just transferred

Application:

• Ideal for interpersonal communication, interviews, conflict resolution

• Crucial in leadership, negotiation, customer service

Limitations:

• Complex to analyze due to multiple variables

• Harder to apply to mass or technical communication

Example in business: A brainstorming session where ideas, feedback, and body language flow continuously among team members.

4. Aristotle’s Theory of Communication (Classical Theory)

Aristotle’s communication theory is one of the earliest models of communication, developed in the 4th century BCE. It was primarily designed for public speaking and rhetoric. The model outlines three essential elements: the speaker, the speech/message, and the audience. According to Aristotle, the effectiveness of communication lies in the ability of the speaker to persuade the audience through three modes of persuasion: ethos (credibility), pathos (emotion), and logos (logic).

This theory is linear in nature and assumes that communication flows in one direction—from the speaker to the audience. The primary goal is to influence or persuade the listener. Although it lacks feedback and does not consider the medium or noise, it is still relevant in speeches, political communication, marketing, and advertising.

Key Elements:

• Speaker: The source of communication who prepares and delivers the message.

• Message: The information, idea, or opinion intended for the audience.

• Audience: The target group that receives and interprets the message.

Aristotle’s model remains influential in public discourse because of its focus on rhetoric and persuasion. In business, it is used in branding, public speaking, negotiations, and leadership communication.

5. Berlo’s SMCR Model

Proposed by David K. Berlo in 1960, the SMCR model expands the communication process into four distinct components: Source, Message, Channel, and Receiver. Each of these components includes various influencing factors such as communication skills, attitudes, knowledge, social system, and culture.

Berlo emphasized the importance of the sender’s and receiver’s communication skills and attitudes, as effective communication requires both parties to be competent. The message includes content, elements, treatment, and structure. The channel refers to the five senses—hearing, seeing, touching, smelling, and tasting. The receiver, like the sender, must possess the ability to decode and understand the message based on similar influencing factors.

Key Strengths:

• Detailed explanation of influencing factors

• Useful in interpersonal and organizational communication

• Highlights the importance of skill and understanding

However, the model is linear and does not incorporate feedback, making it less dynamic. Despite this, it provides a clear structure for analyzing communication, especially in training, instruction, and marketing communication.

6. Schramm’s Model of Communication

Introduced by Wilbur Schramm in 1954, this model adds the important concepts of feedback and field of experience to the communication process. Schramm emphasized that for communication to be effective, both the sender and the receiver must have shared understanding or overlapping fields of experience—including culture, knowledge, language, and values.

Schramm’s model is circular, making it a more realistic representation of communication. It acknowledges that feedback allows the sender to adjust and improve communication based on the receiver’s response. The field of experience explains why communication might succeed or fail—depending on how well the participants understand each other’s context.

Key Features:

• Communication is a two-way process

• Introduces feedback and understanding

• Considers social and cultural backgrounds

This model is applicable in educational, managerial, and media settings where interaction and mutual understanding are vital. Its limitation lies in the assumption that some level of shared background is always present.

7. Lasswell’s Communication Model

Formulated by Harold D. Lasswell in 1948, this model simplifies communication into five key questions:

Who says what, in which channel, to whom, with what effect?

This model is highly effective in mass communication and media analysis, especially in evaluating the effects of communication on an audience. The focus is on message control, media influence, and audience response. It is ideal for analyzing advertising, propaganda, and public relations strategies.

Components:

• Who (Communicator)

• Says What (Message)

• In Which Channel (Medium)

• To Whom (Receiver)

• With What Effect (Outcome)

Its simplicity is both a strength and a weakness. It is linear and doesn’t include feedback or noise. However, it’s very effective for analyzing communication outcomes and is widely used in marketing, journalism, and political campaigns.

8. Dance’s Helix Model

Developed by Frank Dance in 1967, the Helix Model of Communication visualizes communication as an evolving and dynamic process. Unlike earlier linear models, Dance presented communication as a spiral that grows wider over time, indicating the cumulative nature of learning and communication.

The model suggests that every communication experience builds on previous ones. Communication starts in a small circle, and as we interact and gather more experience, our communication improves and becomes more sophisticated. It stresses that communication is irreversible—once something is said, it cannot be unsaid.

Key Points:

• Emphasizes growth and learning

• Represents dynamic, continuous communication

• Each interaction influences future communication

This model is useful in understanding long-term communication patterns, such as brand development, corporate reputation, or leadership communication. However, it does not clearly define the elements of communication, making it less suitable for technical analysis.